The gender pay gap has seen a gradual fall over the years, however, it remains persistent in its existence as a global issue. Mostly defined as the difference in pay between men and women for the same work and skills, it mainly includes the differences in the average earnings of these two genders. Many factors are considered to cause this gap: differences in personal attributes between men and women, unequal division of caring responsibilities, the incidence of gender-typical educational and occupational choices leading to a lack of female involvement in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) majors, etc. STEM are some of the highest paying occupations and the lack of female participation in these areas of study is an important determinant of the gender pay gap in average earnings. According to the Institute of Fiscal Studies, major choice and gap in STEM explain one-fifth of the gender pay gap by the time individuals complete 5-7 years in the workforce. Studies have also attributed the lack of female participation in STEM and other male-dominated majors to differences in preferences and the indirect impact of gender norms on the preferences of these genders. However, few consider culture’s direct role in forming and perpetuating such gender-biased career choices.
Gender biases existing across cultures are regularly exercised in society and are transmitted from one generation to the next through interactions with parents, family and local society. There may not be scientific evidence to back these cultural beliefs, nonetheless, when such beliefs are transmitted through society they can impact economic preferences, decision-making, opportunities, and outcomes differently for men and women. Such beliefs are robust cultural components and can be the direct and indirect cause of the permanence of the gap. However, these beliefs are often not quantifiable and therefore overlooked in scientific investigation.
In recent years, economists have focused on measuring the effect of such cultural gender norms on the economic gender gap. To be able to study the effect of gender norms in isolation, research is often conducted on second-generation immigrants. The idea to study second-generation immigrants is based on the thought that when people migrate, they leave behind the laws and institutions of their home country but carry with them the values and cultural beliefs of their country of ancestry. Thus, this specific group of people are subjected to the same laws as the natives of the country they reside in, but to different cultural gender norms based on their countries of ancestry. By doing so, economists are able to measure the differences in outcomes between natives and immigrants as the effect of cultural gender norms.
The effect of ancestral gender norms has been studied in the context of educational and occupational participation in STEM. The gender gap in STEM arises due to the difference in opportunities, resources and encouragement provided to girls and boys differently. These differences originate from the gender norms embedded in a culture. An example of such a gender norm would be - “boys are better at mathematics than girls”. Studies have found that such biases disproportionately encourage boys to pursue careers in STEM and discourage girls from doing so, increasing the gender gap in STEM and the gender pay gap overall.
The gender gap in STEM is founded on these biases. While studying second-generation immigrants, research has found that the culture in their country of ancestry affects their educational attainment and major choices. Women are found to be 46 per cent less likely to major in STEM than men. This difference is more pronounced by 8.1 per cent if their country of ancestry has a more gender-biased culture. A contesting finding states that women from more gender-neutral countries are less likely to be involved in STEM. This is explained as the gender equality paradox. Studies justify this finding by stating that more gender-neutral countries experience gender biases in terms of specific skills, qualities, and educational capabilities of the genders. Findings suggest that men from gender-neutral countries are more likely to choose female-dominated majors; however, women from gender-neutral countries are less likely to choose STEM or other male-dominated majors. Nonetheless, the role of cultural gender norms is found to be significant in female participation in STEM and thus is an important area of policy focus to reduce the gender pay gap.
As studies continue to find significant effects of cultural gender stereotypes on second-generation immigrants’ involvement in STEM, it becomes clear that culture cannot be escaped and that change is required at a societal level in reshaping such norms in order to reduce the gender pay gap on a global scale. Reform in general gender biases is essential for the economic upliftment of women nonetheless, policies need to be more specific and target gendered beliefs about educational and career choices as well.
Diya Shah
